Multi-phasic nanoparticles

ABSTRACT

A method of forming multi-phasic nano-objects involves the jetting of two or more different liquids in side-by-side capillaries thereby generating a composite liquid stream. The composite then exposed to a force field which causes the composite liquid stream to at least partially solidify into a nano-object. The method forms a nano-object having a number of morphologies such as rods, spheres, and fibers.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser.No. 60/626,792, filed on Nov. 10, 2004 and the benefit of U.S.Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/651,288, filed Feb. 9, 2005.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The invention relates to a method of forming multi-phasic nanoparticlesand to the nanoparticles formed thereof.

2. Background Art

Electrified jetting is a process to develop liquid jets having ananometer-sized diameter, using electro-hydrodynamic forces. When apendant droplet of conducting liquid is exposed to an electric potentialof a few kilovolts, the force balance between electric field and surfacetension causes the meniscus of the pendent droplet to develop a conicalshape, the so-called Taylor cone. Above a critical point, a highlycharged liquid jet is ejected from the apex of the cone. Thiswell-established process has been employed by two processes, i)electrospraying and ii) electrospinning. In electrospraying, the ejectedliquid jet is eventually fragmented due to instabilities and forms aspray of droplets. Among the various applications, production of chargedgas phase ions of bio-macromolecules for mass spectroscopy is the mostwidely used. Using polymer solutions or melts as jetting liquids,eleclectrospinning gives a way to develop fibers whose diameters are afew orders of magnitude smaller than those available from conventionalspinning. Only during the last decade, electrospinning has witnessedincreasing attention and nanofibers have been spun from a wide varietyof polymers. the last decade, electrospinning has witnessed increasingattention and nanofibers have been spun from a wide variety of polymers.

Recently several multi-component jetting systems have been reportedemploying capillaries with different geometries. Among those is acoaxial core-shell geometry, which has outer and inner liquid-feedingchannels and which produces stable cone-jets having sustained core andshell layers. Much less is known about alternative geometries ofmulti-component jetting such as a side-by-side configuration.

Anisotropic multi-phasic nano-objects possessing two distinct phases mayestablish significant advances in nanotechnology and may have broadimpact in areas, such as microelectronics and biotechnology. Thepossibility of selective modification of each side of the biphasicobject makes this system very attractive and versatile for electronicand biomedical applications.

Accordingly, there is a need for improved methods of forming nanometersized particles and for multiphasic particles with unique chemicalproperties.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention solves one or more problems of the prior art byproviding in at least one embodiment a method of forming multiphasicparticles by electrified jetting. The method of this embodiment involvesthe jetting of two or more different liquids in side-by-side capillariesthereby generating composite liquid stream having a multiphasiccone-jet. The formed cone-jet is then exposed to a force field whichcauses the composite liquid stream to at least partially solidify into anano-object.

In another embodiment of the invention, the multiphasic nano-objectformed by the method set forth above is provided. For example, biphasicnanoshperes or biphasic nano-fibers can be produced using the method ofthe invention depending on the specific properties of the liquids usedand on the working parameters. Appropriate selection of jetting liquidswith control of the process parameters as set forth below allowsbiphasic nano-objects to be formed in a variety of morphologies such asnanofibers or nano-spheres. The biphasic objects include compositestructures that are nanocrystals as well as structures with surfacesmodified by selective reactions. The nano-objects of the invention areadvantageously useful in many practical applications, such as photonicand electronic devices, storage devices, and biomedical materials.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is an illustration of a biphasic particle formed by the methodof the invention;

FIG. 1B is an illustration of a biphasic particle formed by the methodof the invention;

FIG. 1C is an illustration of a triphasic particle formed by the methodof the invention;

FIG. 2A is a schematic of an apparatus of an embodiment of the inventionfor forming nanometer sized particles by electrospraying;

FIG. 2B is a schematic of an apparatus of an embodiment of the inventionfor forming nanometer sized fibers by electrospinning;

FIG. 3 is a schematic illustrating the Taylor cone;

FIG. 4 is a schematic describing the recognition of multifunctionalbiphasic particles to specific cell types;

FIG. 5 is a schematic illustrating the functioning of a display based onbiphasic monolayers;

FIG. 6 is a diagram showing the relationship of molecular weight andconcentration to morphology; and

FIG. 7A, B, and C are diagrams of the chemical reaction in an example ofchemical modification.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT(S)

Reference will now be made in detail to presently preferred compositionsor embodiments and methods of the invention, which constitute the bestmodes of practicing the invention presently known to the inventors.

The term “nano-object” as used herein means an object of any morphologyhaving at least one spatial dimension on the order of severalnanometers. In one variation, nano-objects have at least one spatialdimension from about 5 to about 5000 nm. In another variation,nano-objects have at least one spatial dimension from about 20 to about2000 nm. In still other variations, nano-objects have at least onespatial dimension from about 50 to about 500 nm. Examples of suchnano-objects include nano-spheres, nano-rods, and nano-fibers.Nano-spheres are nano-objects that are substantially spherical.Nano-rods are nano-objects that are substantially rod-shaped.Nano-fibers are nano-objects that have a long dimension that is largerthan any dimension of the cross-section. “Nano-particle” is used torefer to a nano-object in which all three spatial dimensions are on theorder of several nano-meters. Again, in one variation, nano-particleshave at least one spatial dimension from about 5 to about 5000 nm. Inanother variation, nano-particles have at least one spatial dimensionfrom about 20 to about 2000 nm. In still other variations,nano-particles have at least one spatial dimension from about 50 toabout 500 nm.

The term “nano-sized” or “nanometer-sized” as used herein means on theorder of several nanometers. In one variation, nano-sized is from about5 to about 5000 nm. In another variation, nano-sized is from about 20 toabout 2000 nm. In still other variations, nano-sized is from about 50 toabout 500 nm.

The term “structural component” as used herein means a compound of thenano-object that renders the nano-object solid.

In an embodiment of the present invention, an anisotropic nano-objecthaving multiple chemically distinct sides is provided. With reference toFIGS. 1A, 1B, and 1C, variations of the nano-objects of the inventionare provided. In FIG. 1A, a variation of this embodiment in which thenano-object is biphasic having two distinct phases 10, 12 of nearlyequal size (with corresponding chemically distinct sides or surfaces) isillustrated. In FIG. 1A, another variation of this embodiment in whichthe nano-object is biphasic having two distinct phases 14, 16 of unequalsize (with corresponding chemically distinct sides or surfaces) isillustrated. The differences in the relative sizes between phases inFIGS. 1A and 1B is due to the differences in thermodynamic equilibriapresent between the composite particles in FIG. 1A versus FIG. 1B. Inother variations, the nano-object has three or more distinct phases withmultiple chemically distinct sides. FIG. 1C provides an illustration ofa nano-object having three phases 18, 20, 22. In each variation, anumber of morphologies are possible. For example, the nano-object may bea multiphasic nano-particle, a multiphasic nano-sphere, a nano-rod, or anano-fiber. The nano-object multiple phases in certain variations haveparallel alignment. In one variation of this embodiment, the nano-objectis characterized by one or more spatial dimensions (of the threepossible) between 5 nm and 5000 nm. In another variation, thenano-object is characterized by one or more spatial dimensions between20 and 2000 nm. In yet another variation, the nano-object ischaracterized by one or more spatial dimensions between 50 and 500 nm.

In another embodiment of the present invention, the nano-object consistsof multiple chemically distinct phases. In some variations, thesechemically distinct phases are polymer phases. In a further refinementof this embodiment, at least one of these phases contains additionaladditives, for example inorganic nanocrystals, quantum dots,biomolecules, colorants (e.g. dyes, pigments, etc), cross-linkers,pharmaceutical compounds, molecular probes, and molecules that enabledrug delivery (e.g., targeted or untargeted). In another refinement, themultiple phases comprise two or more phases which may, for example,contain the same polymer, but differ in the additives added to thephase. One of the phases may contain, for example, a polyether such as apolyethyleneglycol, or a biodegradable polymer such as a polylacticacid, a polycaprolactone, or a polyglycolic acid. One of the phases maycontain a redox-active material, a conducting material, or a materialwith chemical groups that can react after the particles are produced.Such subsequent reactions include cross-linking. Such cross-linking isthermally induced or actinic radiation induced (e.g.,photochemicallyinduced). Moreover, the cross-linking may also include immobilization ofbiomolecules. The biomolecules may, for example, be those which bind toa biological target such as a cell membrane component, a cell receptor,or an extracellular matrix component. In some embodiments, thenano-object may comprise nanoparticles which have at least one phasethat senses a biological target, or at least two phases which sensedistinct biological target molecules. For example, such a sensor maysense a cell surface receptor, or a component of the extracellularfluid. The phase that senses a receptor on a cell wall may be coupled toa signaling mechanism, for example a signaling mechanism which comprisesfluorescent resonance energy transfer. The phase that attaches to areceptor of a cell may be coupled to a signaling mechanism, and thenanoparticle may comprise at least one phase designed so as not toattach to a cell wall. In a further refinement, the nano-object maycreate an electrical potential in response to a light pulse, for examplean electrical potential comparable to a typical cell potential. Thenano-object may have a preferential alignment towards a cell, so that acell potential is applied.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a method of forming themultiphasic nano-objects is provided. The method of this embodimentrepresents an improvement of the electrospraying and electrospinningtechniques of the prior art in that nanobjects with multiple chemicallydistinct surfaces are formed in some variations. In the method of thisembodiment, two or more liquid streams (including liquid jets) arecombined together such that the two or more liquid streams contact overspatial dimensions sufficient to form a composite liquid stream having amulti-phasic cone-jet of nanometer sized dimensions. In some variations,the liquid streams are electrically conductive. The composite liquidstream, and in particular the cone-jet, is exposed to force fieldsufficient to solidify the composite liquid stream (i.e., the cone-jet)into the nano-objects having multiple chemically distinct chemicalsurfaces. In some variations, the liquid stream fragments in dropletslead to nano-particle, nano-sphere, or nano-rod formation.

With reference to FIGS. 2A and 2B, schematics illustrating aside-by-side electrojetting apparatus implementing a variation of themethod of the invention are provided. FIG. 2A is a schematic of anelectrojetting apparatus of the present embodiment in which two jettingliquids are combined to form biphasic particles. FIG. 2B is a schematicof an electrojetting apparatus of the present embodiment in which twojetting liquids are combined to form biphasic fibers. In order toincorporate two different components in each side of the compositestream 28, channels 30, 32 are configured adjacent to each other (i.e.,side by side) in nozzle 34. In same variations, channels 30, 32 arecapillaries. Channels 30, 32 feed two different jetting liquid streams36, 38 into region 40 having an electric field generated by power supply42. Channels 30, 32 are of sufficient dimensions to allow contacting ofliquids streams 36, 38 to form composite stream 44. In one variation,this electric field is generated by the potential difference betweennozzle 34 and plate 46. Typically, an electric field is formed byapplying a potential difference between at least two electrodes fromabout 0.1 kV to about 25 kV. It will be appreciated by one skilled inthe art that various configurations of plates and geometries may be usedto generate the electric field, and therefore are within the scope ofthe present embodiment. FIG. 2A illustrates the electrosprayingvariation of the present invention in which particles 48 are formed. Inthis variation, ejected composite stream 28 is fragmented due toinstabilities thereby forming a spray of droplets. FIG. 3B illustrates avariation in which nano-fibers are formed when polymer solutions ormelts are used as jetting liquids, fibers 58 are obtained. In FIG. 3Bsyringe pump 60 is used to drive the liquids in nozzle 34.

With reference to FIG. 3, a schematic of the cone-jet formation isprovided. Although the present embodiment is not restricted to anyparticular mechanism for forming the resultant biphasic objects, it isbelieved that the generation of a jet in which jetting liquids 36, 38maintain their side-by-side configuration and in which jet 50 is ejectedfrom apex 50 of cone-shaped pendent droplet 52. When pendant droplet 52is exposed to an electric potential of a few kilovolts,electro-hydrodynamic forces act to break the liquids apart.Specifically, the force balance between the electric field and surfacetension of pendant droplet 52 causes the meniscus of pendant droplet 52to develop conical shape 54 (referred to as a “Taylor cone”). Above acritical point, a highly charged liquid is ejected from the apex of thecone.

As schematically presented in FIGS. 2A, 2B, and 3, the biphasic jetwhich is ejected by the stable biphasic cone can be either fragmented tobiphasic nanodroplets or can solidify into biphasic nanofibers. The twophases, i.e., the two jetting liquids (or solutions), can either becompatible with each other or not. However, when two polymer solutionsare compatible each other, the most ideal case for a stable cone-jet andfor a stable interface between the two phases is present. In suchsituations, the process is not thermodynamically but rather kineticallycontrolled, resulting in one phase being trapped in each side beforethey mix with the other phase. Moreover, the compatibility between thetwo phases is desirable in terms of the stability of the interface.

Morphological control is an important feature of the present invention.Therefore, composite liquid stream 28 which is ejected from the pendantcone 54 can either be fragmented to small droplets or be sustained andelongated in the form of a continuous fiber. The size of the droplet anddiameter of the fibrous jet can also be controlled. Such control isattained by changing either the material properties of jetting liquidsor the working parameters of electrified jetting that break-up the jet.It should be appreciated, however, that the final morphology of theliquid jet is not always the same as those of the solid productscollected on the substrates. The shape of final products is bestcontrolled by a well-defined sol-gel transition. When the method of theinvention is used to form fibers (i.e., electrospinning), this sol-geltransition is intrinsic to the process, since the jetting liquids arepolymer solutions or polymer melts, solvent evaporation or a temperaturedrop below the thermal transition temperature during the jetting acts asa sol-gel treatment step.

Since the electrified jetting methods of the invention rely to a greatextent on electrohydrodynamic processes, the properties of the jettingliquid and operating parameters are closely related to each other.Moreover, when the jetting liquids are not one-component systems (i.e.,mixtures of two or more compounds), the jetting liquid is a solutionhaving properties governed by several parameters of the solvent andsolutes. It should be appreciated that, liquid properties, solutionparameters, and operating parameters are interconnected in the methodsof the present invention. Relevant material properties includeviscosity, surface tension, volatility, thermal and electricalconductivity, dielectric permittivity, and density. Relevant solutionproperties includes concentrations, molecular weight, solvent mixtures,surfactants, doping agent, and cross-linking agents. Finally, relevantoperating parameters are flow rate of the liquid streams, electricpotential, temperature, humidity, and ambient pressure. With regard tothe operating parameters, the average size and size distributions of thedroplets in electrospraying with cone-jet mode are known to be highlydependent on the flow rate (pumping rate of the jetting liquids). At afixed flow rate, the size distributions consist of one or severalrelatively monodisperse classes of diameters. At minimum flow rate, themodality of the distributions and diameter of the droplet itself alsoshow their minima. When the flow rate is changed, the electric fieldshould be adjusted by changing either distance or electric potentialbetween the electrodes in order to sustain a stable cone-jet mode.Higher flow rate should be accompanied by a higher electrical field formass balance of jetting liquids. When the diameter of droplets are notsmall enough, solvent evaporation cannot be complete before the dropletsreach the collecting substrate, so the resulting droplets are wet andflat. FIG. 6 described below provides a sense of the interaction of theweight average molecular weight versus concentration in determiningmorpology.

In order to produce fine droplets, the jetting liquids should befragmented before they solidify. For this purpose, jetting liquids canbe a very dilute polymer solution with extensional viscosity that doesnot show much strain hardening. However, depending on the molecularweight of the polymer, this concentration range is sometimes too low forparticle production. Accordingly, in some variations, an alternative isto use low molecular weight compound as the jetting liquid. In suchvariations, the droplets are in a liquid phase at the point ofcollection. Accordingly, the appropriate sol-gel chemistry isnecessarily employed after or during the process of jetting. In somevariations, the resultant nano-object of the jetting is cross-linkedthereby having an insoluble network structure. The cross-linkingreaction of the prepolymer will be initiated by an appropriate method(e.g., thermal initiation or UV illumination).

In yet another embodiment of the invention, multi-phasic nano-objectswith selective chemical modification are provided. In this embodiment,the nano-objects are formed from one or more liquid streams that includeone or more reactive components that react with a structural component(i.e., a polymer) thereby rendering a resulting surface of themulti-phasic nano-objects chemically modified as compared to the surfacewhen the one or more reactive components are not present. Moreover, theliquid streams in this embodiment may include components such asinorganic nanocrystals, quantum dots, biomolecules, colorants (e.g.dyes, pigments, etc), cross-linkers, pharmaceutical compounds, molecularprobes, and molecules that enable drug delivery (e.g., targeted oruntargeted). For example, during the formation of biphasic particles,reactive functional groups will be incorporated by adding appropriatecomponents in each side of the jetting solution. After biphasic jetting,the surface of the object will have different functional groups in eachside. In some variations, the different phases in this embodiment aredetected by either fluorescent or electron microscopy. This example isanalogous extended to the case of when more than two streams are used.

As set forth above, a number of additives may be included in the variousphases of the nano-objects of the invention. Therefore, such additivesmust also be included in one or more of the liquid streams used to formthe nano-objects. In one variation, quantum dots which have specificelectronic, magnetic, optical or biomedical properties on only one sideof a nano-sphere or nanofiber may be incorporated. In another variation,the multiphasic nano-objects of the invention are used in a drugdelivery system, as cellular probes for in-vitro and in-vivoexperiments, or as a platform for in-vivo biosensors with drug targetingcapability. In the case of biphasic nano-objects, the intrinsiccomplexity of the biphasic character endows these objectsmultifunctionality. When one phase of the object is exploited for celltargeting, recognizing or sensing, the other can be used for drugloading and/or probing. In addition, one of the most attractive featuresof this system is relatively low cost and ease of production for thismultifunctionality. Similarly, the use of two different cell-specificantibodies could be used to orient cells in a tissue-like fashion.Quantum dots are emerging new materials for biological labeling and arerapidly substituting traditional organic colorants and fluorescentproteins due to their unique characteristics such as high luminescenceand long stability. These quantum dots can be encapsulated in orselectively attached to the biphasic object. Probing and sensing will beaccomplished by combining the biphasic character and an appropriatephysical mechanism (e.g. fluorescent resonance energy-transfer, FRET).For sensors or probes based on FRET, size control and interface designbetween the donor and acceptor considering the Föster distance will bethe critical issue.

With reference to FIG. 4, a schematic describing the recognition ofmulti-functional biphasic particles to specific cell types is provided.In this illustration, two different types of nanoparticles 100, 102 areused. Particles 100 includes phases 104, 106 while particles 102 includephases 108, 110. Receptor 112 for first cell target 114 is attached tophase 104 while component 116 is attached to phase 106. Component 116may be a drug. Similarly, receptor 118 for second cell target 120 isattached to phase 108. Particles 102 also include quantum dots 122within phase 110.

It should also be appreciated in the applications set forth above, thatas the size of the object becomes smaller down to the sub-micron scale,due to the increased surface-to-volume ratio, many of thecharacteristics of the objects are dominated by the structure andcomposition of the surface. Therefore, potential applications for drugdelivery will greatly benefit from specific surface reactions that willallow immobilization of cell-specific antibodies.

In another embodiment of the present invention, biphasic nano-spheresmade by the methods set forth above are used as building blocks forhyperstructures. For example, a monolayer of biphasic nano-spheres canact as a switchable surface which responds to the application of anexternal force field (electric or magnetic) FIG. 5 is a schematicillustrating the functioning of a display based on biphasic monolayers.In FIG. 5, switchable nano-objects may be achieved in several ways. Inone variation, one phase of the nano-object is loaded with magneticparticles thereby creating a structure that is switchable with amagnetic field. In a second variation, electron donors are included inone phase and electron acceptors in a second phase to produce a dipolemoment which may be switched with an electric field. In each of thesevariations, a display may be formed by incorporating a suitable colorantin each phase. Therefore, for example if triphasic nano-objects areutilized with each phase having a colorant for one of the three primarycolors, a display that can attain nearly every color can be obtained.

When polymer solutions are employed as jetting liquids, roughly threedifferent regimes can be designated for electrified jetting depending onthe polymer concentrations. At the two extreme concentration regions,i.e. very dilute concentration (below overlap concentration, c*) andfairly concentrated concentration (above c*), jetting can be categorizedas electrospraying and electrospinning, respectively. Very dilutepolymer solutions are similar to low molecular weight liquids (usuallysolvents) in terms of viscoelasticity. The capillary break-up of the jetoccurs easily to form droplets, so as to produce unimolecularmacromolecule ions as in the case of application of mass spectrometry.However, at higher concentrations, the capillary break-up of the jet isdifficult to achieve due to the strain hardening of the polymer solutionin elongational flow. During this persistence, solvent evaporation isaccelerated by the elongation of the jet and eventually the jetsolidifies as a fine fiber.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a method of formingmultiphasic beaded fibers is provided. It is observed that atintermediate concentrations, polymer solutions can form beaded fiberswhen electro-jetted. In the present embodiment, two or more streams ofpolymer solutions are combined together at a nozzle such that the two ormore streams contact over spatial dimensions sufficient to form acomposite liquid stream having a cross-section of nanometer sizeddimensions. At least a portion of the composite liquid stream is exposedto an electric field sufficient to fragment the composite liquid streaminto beaded fibers. Sometimes the beaded fiber structure is referred toas “beads-on-string” morphology. Poly(ethyleneoxide) (PEO) solutions areexemplary solutions showing this morphology. This unique structure isbelieved to be the result of competition between the elongational forceof the electric field and the surface tension of the jetting liquid.Since the size and shape of the beads and string can be controlled byadjusting various liquid parameters and operating parameters. Viscosity,charge density, and surface tension of the jetting solutions are factorsaffecting this morphology. Viscosity and surface tension of solutionsare changed by solution parameters such as the molecular weight ofpolymer, concentration, and addition of other components such asco-solvents and surfactants. Charge density can be controlled by theaddition of doping agents (i.e. ionizing salt) and operationalparameters such as electrical potentials and neutralizing iongeneration.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a method of makingmulti-component polymer mixtures of electron donors and acceptors isprovided. Analogous bulk heterojunctions have several limitations. Inthe bulk materials, some regions made by random blending are too largefor excitons to diffuse to the interface, and carrier phases are ofteninterrupted before they reach the electrode. The nano-fibers of thepresent embodiment in one variation are biphasic. These nano-fibers haveenhanced generations of heterojunctions between electron donors andacceptors as compared to conventional blending systems. Theoreticallyalmost every exciton generated by both phase can reach the interfacebefore recombining. Accordingly, the heterojuction interfaces realizedby the biphasic nano-fibers of this embodiment improve theexciton-splitting process. In contrast, our biphasic nano-fibers have acontrollable phase dimension, whose diameter can go down to tens ofnanometers. So theoretically almost every exciton generated by bothphase can meet the interface before it recombines. Thesepseudo-molecular level heterojuction interfaces realized by the biphasicconfiguration of nano-fibers will give a novel way to improve theexciton-splitting process more than ever. Additionally, since each phaseforms a one-dimensional object, each acts as charge carrier,uninterrupted by the other until it contacts the electrode.

In still another embodiment of the present invention, donor/acceptorstructures with a biphasic architecture are provided. In thisembodiment, inorganic nanoparticles are incorporated as photoactivecarriers. These inorganic nano-particles are used because of theirelectrical conductivity (necessary for efficient charge separation).Moreover, these materials have electrical and optical properties thatcan be adjusted by varying the particle size and form densely packedlayers. Finally, such materials are environmentally more stable thanmany colorants or proteins. Examples of useful inorganic materialsinclude CdTe and CdS nano-particles. These materials have been shown tobe an excellent source of photo-potential and used in solar cells.Moreover, these junctions exhibit one of the highest photopotentialsobserved for photoactive thin films. Because the energy of the valenceand conduction bands in nano-particles can be controlled by varyingtheir diameter, one can further increase the photo-potential byselecting CdS and CdTe nano-particles with optimal position of energylevels in respect to each other. The optical and electronic propertiesof CdTe and CdS nano-particles can be changed gradually by varying theirdiameter. As the particle size decreases, the energy gap between the topof the valence band (“VB”) and the bottom of the conduction band (“CB”)increases, which is termed the quantum size effect. The ability to varythe relative position of the CB and VB of CdTe and CdS is essential formaximization of charge separation in the biphasic nano-objects. Aqueoussolutions of CdTe and CdS nano-crystals capped with thioglycolic acid orcitrate ions are readily prepared.

In still another embodiment of the present invention, the anisotropicparticles may also be integrated in layered shell structures, films, orcastings. This is useful to generate two or three dimensionalarchitecture. Moreover, a graded profile of conduction band energieswhich are formed by LBL. Such layered shell structures, films orcastings may enable withdrawal of electrons from the interface withpolymers to prevent charge recombination. 2D films of semiconductornanoparticles with properly positioned HOMO and LUMO to driveinterracial photogenerated charge separation may be formed in thismanner. Example of useful systems exhibiting this phenomenon are CdS andCdTe because of the proper positioning of their energy spectrum.

In yet another embodiment of the present invention, a multiphasiccolorant (“MPC”) made by electrojetting is provided. The MPC's of thisembodiment have a wide range of optical properties. The opticalproperties of the MPC's are determined by the type and concentration ofcolorant molecules in the additives that are included in the MPCs.Specific additives are known to those skilled in the art and include,but are not limited to dyes and pigments such as, low-molecular weightdyes, such as laser dyes, textile dyes, paints, coatings, plasticcolorants, metal colorants, ceramic colorants, fluorescence dyes,natural dyes, polymeric dyes, inorganic or organic pigments, or mixturesthereof. Moreover, the surface properties of each phase of the MPC canbe tailored to change the overall properties of the MCPs. By variationthe concentrations of colorants in the phases of the MCPs and byincluding colorants for each of the primary colors, MCPs of virtuallyany color are obtained. Moreover, the MCPs of this embodiment produceadditional optical effects such as sheen, angular color variations, andtranslucent cy, if desired.

Single phase colorants are made by electrified jetting with a singlenozzle setup through which a jetting liquid is fed. The jetting liquidis a mixture of structural components, colorants, and solvent(s) thatcan dissolve all the components. Structural components include polymersthat are compatible with electrospraying or electrospinning. Thestructural components and the colorants typically form a single phasecolorant in a form of homogeneous mixture after the jetting process. Thecomponents can or cannot be thermodynamically compatible to each other.In the jetting process accompanying solvent evaporation and sizereduction, even incompatible components can form one-phasic colorant bykinetic entrapment.

In a variation of this embodiment, side-by-side dual capillaries can beused for the electrified jetting process to create two-phasic colorants(FIG. 3). Through each jetting capillary (nozzle), two chemicallydistinct jetting liquids are fed into a region having a force fieldpresent, and in particular an electric field. Each of the two jettingliquids can be composed of all the components typically used inone-phasic colorant production. In order to induce distinctcharacteristics in each phase, different dopants (colorants andadditives) are incorporated for each jetting liquid. The structuralcomponents (i.e., the polymer or polymer solution) for each liquidstream may be the same or different. In a further refinement,alternative colorants may have a core-shell geometry. In othervariation, the colorants are set into their final geometry by apost-treatment step, such as thermal annealing or treatment with lightor other forms of energy.

In another variation of the present invention, three different phasesare incorporated in one multi- phase colorant by use of three jettingliquids that are fed through three jetting capillaries. In thisvariation, the geometry of the three capillaries can be varied inseveral different ways. In one variation, the capillaries aretriangularly arranged. In this case, three different dopant mixturesystems can be incorporated in each of the three phases, all of whichare exposed to the periphery of the colorants. In another variation, thecapillary geometry is created by inserting side-by-side dual capillariesinto an outer capillary. This combined geometry of biphasic andcore-shell jetting produces triphasic colorants with interestinginternal materials distribution. For example, if the two inner (core)liquids are used for inducement of colorants and additives, theresulting colorants would behave like the biphasic colorants. The thirdouter (shell) liquids can be used for an inducenment of encapsulatinglayer, which can protect the colorants from the incompatible mediaand/or can enhance the suspending capability of the colorants bycontrolling the surface characteristics of the colorants.

The present embodiment also embraces colorants with more than threephases. Extension of the biphasic and triphasic electrified jetting usesmore than three jetting capillaries for employing more than three phasesinto the colorants. In order to ensure that all the jetting liquids areinvolved in the production of every colorant, i.e., in order to preventthe case that each colorant is composed of a different combination ofphases, the geometry of the capillaries is just that the jet is ejectedout from the junction point of all the jetting liquid phases in theTaylor cone.

In other variations of this embodiment, colorants with non-sphericalshapes are prepared. As set forth above, the electrified jetting processis governed by complex parameter windows. Variation of these parameters,allows the cone-jet mode that is appropriate for the multi-capillariesjetting, among various jetting modes. Variation of these parameters,also allows control of the shape of the resulting nano-objects. FIG. 6shows an example how the morphology can be controlled by changing twoindependent solution parameters (concentration and molecular weight ofthe structural polymer). In this case, use of higher concentrations andlarger molecules makes viscosity of the jetting solution higher so thatthe resulting morphology becomes more fibrous. For the same jettingliquids, use of different operating parameters also change the resultingmorphology. The possible geometry of the colorants include sphericalnano/micro- particles, ellipsoidal particles, nano/mocro- rods,beads-on-a-string, nano-fibers, and etc.

In yet another variation of this embodiment, white colorants withapplication in white, opaque paints (i.e., white pigments without TiO₂)are provided. In one refinement, white colorants that are made of purelyorganic materials are prepared by the methods set forth above. A whitecolor (low density), is generated by combining three or more organicdyes in one colorant, instead of using heavy and abrasive inorganic TiO₂particles. The dyes may be a combination of the primary colors. Thesedyes can be either mixed together in one-phasic colorants orincorporated in each phase of multi-phasic colorants. For example,triphasic colorants include fluorescent dyes that have an emissionwavelength range of three additive primary colors (i.e., blue, green andred). In this example, each phase includes one color dye. When thesecolorants are illuminated with a fluorescent lamp, the three dyes ineach phase emit their colors and the additive primary colors producewhite-colored light.

The MCP of the present embodiment are useful for electronic displayapplications. Electronic displays are created by controlling therelative orientation of MCP's to the surface and to each other. Thechange in orientation is due to the influence of a controllable,external force field. In response to the switching of the field,re-orientation of at least a part of the MCP's is observed, whichresults in a change in optical properties of the display pixel. Eachpixel consists of at least one MPC's. With such a technology, changes inthe surface properties can be amplified to induce changes in color, asit is needed for advanced color displays.

The following examples illustrate the various embodiments of the presentinvention. Those skilled in the art will recognize many variations thatare within the spirit of the present invention and scope of the claims.

EXAMPLE 1-BIPHASIC JETTING

The experimental setup for the present experiment conforms with that ofFIG. 3. Two jetting liquids are fed using a dual syringe applicatorassembly (FibriJet® SA-0100, Micromedics, Inc., MN, USA). In this setup,two 1 ml syringes are controlled by one syringe pump. Each syringe isfilled with separate jetting solutions. These two syringes are connectedto a dual channel tip ((FibriJet® SA-0105, Micromedics, Inc., MN, USA)which has a dual cannula with a dimension of 26 gauge and 3 inch length.These dual cannula or capillaries are covered with a transparent plastictube that ties these two capillaries in side-by-side fashion. In orderto avoid the capillary pressure caused by the groove between the tworound shape cannula and create a stable biphasic pendent droplet fromthe side-by-side capillary setup, the tip end level is made even by thesharp cutting of the two capillaries and the plastic tube.

In this example, ideal conditions for biphasic jetting are considered.Specifically, the material properties for each liquid are similar.Compatibility between the two jetting solutions is necessary to achievea stable interface between the two phases, and basic components (i.e.polymer and solvent) need to be the same. However, each side includes adifferent contrasting component to create an identifiable characteristic(e.g., fluorescent dyes for confocal microscopy or molecules withdifferent electron density for TEM), which must be maintained in eachphase throughout the process. Diffusion of these contrasting componentsfrom one phase to the other must be avoided until the point ofsolidification. In line with the above mentioned objectives, mixtures ofPEO and macromolecular fluorescent dye dissolved in water are selectedfor each side of jetting solution. PEO (average molecular weight600,000), fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-Dextran, averagemolecular weight 250,000), and Rhodamine B-dextran (Rho-Dextran, averagemolecular meight 70,000) are purchased from Aldrich Co. (USA). Jettingis performed with solutions which are composed of 3% of PEO and 0.5% ofeach fluorescent-dextran by weight for each side of the jettingsolution. 8 kV of electric potential is applied between 25 cm separationof the electrodes. A glass slide is covered with aluminum foil exceptabout 80% of the surface of one face, and the jetting is performed onthe open face of the glass slide. Electrodes are connected directly tothe side-by-side capillaries and the aluminum foil covering the glassslide substrate. Flow rate is 0.1 ml/hour for each side. Conformalmicroscopy shows the resulting beads-on-string morphology. (Model. SP2CLSM manufactured by Leica, USA). Ar/ArKr laser (wavelength 488 mn) andGreNe laser (wavelength 543 nm) are used to excite FITC and Rhodamine Brespectively. The absorption (emission) wavelength windows for FITC andRhodamine B are set to 508˜523 nm and 650˜750 nm respectively.

EXAMPLE 2-SELECTIVE CHEMICAL MODIFICATION

In this example, the feasibility of selective reaction for furthersurface modification of biphasic particles is demonstrated. One side ofa jetting solution is composed of PEO (Mw 600,000) 2%, 4-arm-star-shapedPEO with amine end groups (Mw 10,000, Aldrich Co.) 0.5% and dextran (Mw70,000) 1% by weight dissolved in distilled water. The composition ofthe other side is PEO (Mw 600,000) 2%, 4-arm-star-shaped PEO withhydroxyl end groups (Mw 10,000, Aldrich Co.) 0.5% andrhodamine-B-dextran (Mw 70,000) 1% by weight in distilled water. Dextranand hydroxyl end group star PEO are employed in each phase in order toensure equal properties related to the jetting. Each side of the jettingsolution is electrospun as a mono-phase to be examined as controlexperiments. At similar experimental conditions, i.e. 7 kV electricalpotential, 25 cm distance between the electrodes and a flow rate of 0.06ml/hour, both solutions are successfully electrospun to form abeads-on-string morphology on top of glass substrate with the sameexperimental setup as described in the previous section. Biphasicjetting is performed at 6 kV, 25 cm, 0.05 ml/h for both sides. Theelectrospun fibers on top of the glass slide from two controlmono-phasic jettings and the biphasic jetting are then immersed inBODIPY® solutions in nhexane for 15 minuites. Since n-hexane is anon-solvent for all of the components, beads-onstring morphology on topof the glass slide remains after the immersing step. Using the specificreaction between the amine and succinymidyl ester, BODIPY® dyes arecovalently attached to the surface with amine groups selectively. Afterthis reaction step, the glass slides are immersed in an excess amount ofclean n-hexane to make sure all possibly non-selectively adsorbed ordiffused-in dyes from the biphasic particles are washed out. Theproducts are then examined by confocal microscopy. Excitation lasers areused as described in previous section, and the absorption wavelengthwindows for BODIPY® and Rhodamine are 512˜539 nm and 630˜670 nm,respectively. Rhodamine absorption wavelength window is a designatedlonger wavelength region than usual in order to tail out the excitationspectrum of BODIPY®.

EXAMPLE 3

Biphasic nano-objects are made form polymer/inorganic material hybridsand are imaged by transmission microscope (Model CM12, Philips). The twojetting solutions are designed to give a contrast by the difference inelectron density of each side. The darker side jetting solution consistsof 2% PEO (Mw 600,000 g/mol), 0.5% sodium polystyrene sulfonate (PSS, Mw200,000 g/mol, Aldrich, USA) and 0.3% silver nitrate dissolved indistilled water. Though the solution is kept in dark, dark spots in theTEM picture are due to atomic silver nanocrystals. The lighter sidejetting solution consists of 2% PEO and 0.5% FITC-conjugated-dextran.The macromolecular fluorescent dye is mixed in to examine the samesample with a confocal microscope to confirm the biphasic character.Samples for TEM experiments are prepared by direct jetting on to carboncoated copper grid (400 mesh, TED PELLA, Redding Calif., USA). Themorphology characterization of nano-objects are performed using aScanning Electron Microscope (Model XL 30) manufactured by Phillips.Internal structure and the detailed structural features such as electrondensity and crystalline structures of each phase are investigated bytransmission electron microscope (JEOL 301 1, Japan).

EXAMPLE 4

A biphasic object which has primary amine groups in one side is producedusing polyethylene imine (“PEI”) in one side of jetting solution.Jetting is performed using carbon film coated copper grid on top ofaluminum foil as a collecting substrate. About 1 mg of eosinisothiocyantate is solubilized in 100 mi of n-hexane. Immersing thebiphasic object on top of copper grid into the eosin solution isperformed for 20 min. After this reaction step, the grid is also put hnothe clean hexane for 60 min to clean out the possible unselectivelyattached dye. TEM experiments show biphasic character.

While embodiments of the invention have been illustrated and described,it is not intended that these embodiments illustrate and describe allpossible forms of the invention. Rather, the words used in thespecification are words of description rather than limitation, and it isunderstood that various changes may be made without departing from thespirit and scope of the invention.

1. A method of forming nano-objects, the method comprising: combining two or more liquid streams together such that the two or more liquid streams contact over spatial dimensions sufficient to form a composite liquid stream; and exposing at least a portion of the composite liquid stream to a force field sufficient to form a nano-sized cone-jet thereby solidifying the composite liquid stream into the nano-objects, the nano-objects comprising multiple phases and multiple chemically distinct surfaces.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the force field is an electric field, a pressure gradient field, or a gravity field.
 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the composite liquid stream is at least partially solidified by a solidification process selected from the group consisting of evaporation, sol-gel transitioning, cooling and combinations thereof.
 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the composite liquid stream comprises a cone-jet.
 5. The method of claim 1 wherein the composite liquid stream fragments into droplets when exposed to the force field.
 6. The method of claim 1 wherein one or more of the liquid streams comprise a component selected from the group consisting of liquid solutions, curable polymer precursors, polymer solutions, and polymer melts.
 7. The method of claim 6 wherein one or more liquid streams further comprise an additive.
 8. The method of claim 7 wherein the additive is selected from the groups consisting of inorganic nanocrystals, quantum dots, biomolecules, colorants, crosslinkers, pharmaceutical compounds, molecular probes, and molecules that enable drug delivery.
 9. The method of claim 8 further comprising curing one or more liquid streams comprising curable polymer precursors.
 10. The method of claim 9 wherein the polymer precursors are cured thermally or by exposure to actinic radiation.
 11. The method of claim 1 wherein the nano-object has a spatial dimension between about 5 nm and about 5000 nm,
 12. The method of claim 1 wherein the nano-object has a spatial dimension between about 20 nm and about 2000 nm.
 13. The method of claim 1 wherein the nano-object has a spatial dimension between about 50 nm and 500 nm.
 14. The method of claim 1 wherein an electric field is formed by applying a potential difference between at least two electrodes from about 0.1 kV to about 25 kV.
 15. The method of claim 1 wherein the two or more liquid streams each individually include a colorant and wherein the nano-object is a multiphase colorant.
 16. The method of claim 1 wherein one or more liquid streams include one or more reactive components that react with a structural component thereby rendering a resulting surface of the nano-object chemically modified as compared to the surface when the one or more reactive components are not present.
 17. A method of forming nano-objects, the method comprising: combining two or more liquid streams together at a nozzle such that the two or more liquid streams contact over spatial dimensions sufficient to form a composite liquid stream having a nano-sized cone-jet; and exposing at least a portion of the composite liquid stream to an electric field sufficient to solidify the composite liquid stream into the nano-objects, the nano-objects comprising multiple phases and multiple chemically distinct surfaces, wherein the nano-objects have a spatial dimension between about 20 nm and about 2000 nm.
 18. The method of claim 17 wherein the nano-object is a biphasic nano-object and the one or more liquid streams comprise two chemically distinct liquid streams.
 19. The method of claim 17 wherein one or more of the liquid streams comprise a component selected from the group consisting of liquid solutions, curable polymer precursors, polymer solutions and polymer melts.
 20. The method of claim 19 wherein one or more liquid streams further comprise an additive.
 21. The method of claim 20 wherein the additive is selected from the groups consisting of inorganic nanocrystals, quantum dots, biomolecules, colorants, crosslinkers, pharmaceutical compounds, molecular probes, and molecules that enable drug delivery.
 22. The method of claim 21 further comprising curing one or more liquid streams comprising curable polymer precursors.
 23. The method of claim 17 wherein the nano-object has a spatial dimension between about 50 nm and 500 nm.
 24. A nano-object having at least one spatial dimension from about 20 nm to about 2000 nm and having multiple chemically distinct surfaces.
 25. The nano-object of claim 24 wherein the nano-object is a biphasic nano-object.
 26. The nano-object of claim 24 wherein the nano-object has a morphology selected from the group consisting of spheres, rods, fibers, and combinations thereof.
 27. The nano-object of claim 24 wherein one or more liquid streams further comprise an additive.
 28. The nano-object of claim 27 wherein the additive is selected from the group consisting of inorganic nanocrystals, quantum dots, biomolecules, colorants, crosslinkers, pharmaceutical compounds, molecular probes, and molecules that enable drug delivery.
 29. The nano-object of claim 27 wherein the additive is a colorant and the nano-object is a multiphase colorant. 